FCPA Updates for Global Companies
Paul M. Thompson | Tony Maida | Michael W. Peregrine | Sarah E. Walters | Michael S. Stanek
In recent months, the US Department of Justice (DOJ) has issued important guidance for global companies on corporate compliance programs and the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act (FCPA) self-disclosure program. Taken together, this recent DOJ guidance reinforces that companies will receive significant benefit from the US government when they develop robust compliance programs that will both prevent and detect corruption – and when potential FCPA violations are promptly identified, remediated, and reported to the DOJ. Even in circumstances where misconduct is pervasive or involves upper management, a company’s exemplary actions may nonetheless result in a prosecution declination or cooperation credit.
Compliance Program Guidance
On April 30, 2019, the DOJ issued new guidance to prosecutors, drawn from a number of existing departmental sources offering varying degrees of specificity, on evaluating corporate compliance programs. This guidance updates and answers questions posed in previous guidance issued in February 2017, to reflect DOJ’s evolving view of compliance program effectiveness.
Boards and management should make use of recent expanded guidance from the US Department of Justice to ensure that their compliance programs are considered “effective†if and when an investigation arises. Companies should affirmatively answer three fundamental questions in evaluating a compliance program: 1) Is the compliance program well designed? 2) Is the program being implemented effectively and in good faith? 3) Does the compliance program work in practice?
The DOJ details specific factors that prosecutors should consider when investigating corporations and other organizations in the Justice Manual’s “Principles of Federal Prosecution of Business Organizations.†These factors include “the adequacy and effectiveness of the corporation’s compliance program†at both the time of the offense and the time of the charging decision, and remedial efforts to “implement an adequate and effective corporate-compliance program or to improve an existing one.†DOJ’s 2017 guidance offered some general questions to help prosecutors make such an assessment—although it did not provide prosecutors with corresponding answers on compliance program effectiveness.
The “effectiveness†of compliance programs also currently appears in other DOJ policy memoranda and federal sentencing guidelines, but without substantial guidance as to what prosecutors should deem effective. Specifically, Sections 8B2.1, 8C2.5(f) and 82C.8(11) of the US Sentencing Guidelines provide that consideration should be given to whether a corporation had an effective compliance program in place at the time of misconduct when calculating the appropriate fine. DOJ’s memorandum on the selection of compliance monitors (the Benczkowski Memo) also instructs prosecutors to consider, at the time of resolution, whether the corporation has made “significant investments in, and improvements to, its corporate compliance program and internal controls systems,†and whether “remedial improvements to the compliance program†have been tested to demonstrate that the program would prevent or detect similar misconduct.
DOJ’s new expanded guidance provides more specific factors for federal prosecutors to consider when determining whether a company deserves settlement credit through a demonstrated commitment to compliance. While broadly mirroring information in the Justice Manual, past DOJ memoranda and guidance, the federal sentencing guidelines, and many DOJ Deferred Prosecution Agreements and Non-Prosecution Agreements, the updated guidance provides more detail to assist prosecutors in making informed decisions about whether a corporation’s compliance program was effective at the time of the offense and is effective at the time of a charging decision or resolution. Just as importantly, the updated guidance allows corporate boards and executives to make a similar assessment and to address any shortcomings in their organization’s compliance program.
DOJ acknowledges that there is no “rigid formula†when it comes to assessing compliance programs. A company should tailor its compliance program to its specific risk profile. In doing so, however, compliance officers, board members and corporate executives should keep in mind that prosecutors will ask three “fundamental†questions in making an assessment of a company’s compliance program:
1. Is the corporation’s compliance program well designed?
DOJ takes the position that a well-designed compliance program depends on a risk assessment: has the company “identified, assessed, and defined its risk profile?†In turn, does the program devote appropriate scrutiny and resources to the range of possible risks? Prosecutors will look to whether a compliance program is appropriately designed to detect the particular types of misconduct that are likely to occur in the company’s line of business, regulatory landscape and business environment. Well-designed compliance programs also should be periodically updated, often through additional risk assessments.
Under the DOJ guidance, prosecutors will next look to a company’s compliance policies and procedures, including a code of conduct that sets forth the company’s commitment to compliance with relevant laws. The creation of well-designed policies should involve the right people—including appropriate seniority and relevant business units. Such policies should be drafted to be comprehensive, accessible and reinforced through internal controls systems.
The DOJ guidance also expects appropriately tailored training and communications, with a focus on training employees in control functions and high-risk areas. Training and guidance should be accessible and available in appropriate languages. Employees should know the company’s position concerning misconduct. Similarly, employees should have clear, accessible and confidential reporting channels for reporting misconduct—and there should be appropriate processes for investigating such reporting. Such mechanisms are considered “probative†in assessing whether a company has established mechanisms for detecting and preventing misconduct.
The DOJ guidance specifically calls out third-party management and M&A as risk areas where DOJ expects companies to have well-developed programs to assess and address potential compliance issues.
2. Is the program applied earnestly and in good faith? In other words, is the program implemented effectively?
DOJ next looks to whether a company has demonstrated a commitment to the compliance program by senior and middle management. To the government, this is perhaps one of the most important factors in assessing the effectiveness of a compliance program. Prosecutors will ask whether senior management, including the board, has “clearly articulated the company’s ethical standards, conveyed and disseminated them in clear and unambiguous terms, and demonstrated rigorous adherence by example.†Prosecutors will then evaluate whether middle management has reinforced those standards.
DOJ will also ask whether a compliance program has appropriate autonomy and resources, focusing on whether there is sufficient seniority and authority within the organization, sufficient resources and staff to undertake the necessary work of a well-designed compliance program (including internal audit), and sufficient autonomy from management, including access to the board or audit committee.
DOJ will also look to incentives and disciplinary measures taken in response to compliance and non-compliance, respectively. It is critical that appropriate human resources processes are developed and consistently applied.
3. Does the corporation’s compliance program work in practice?
Effective compliance programs cannot exist only “on paper.†They must work in practice. Prosecutors will closely review whether a program was working when misconduct was identified, especially in circumstances where misconduct was not immediately detected. While Section 8B2.1(a) of the US Sentencing Guidelines makes clear that misconduct in and of itself does not mean that a program is ineffective, the DOJ guidance indicates that prosecutors should view identification of misconduct by a compliance program as a “strong indicator that the compliance program was working effectively.†Prosecutors will consider whether and how the company detected potential misconduct, what resources were in place to investigate the potential misconduct, and the “nature and thoroughness of the company’s remedial efforts.â€
Prosecutors will evaluate whether a compliance program continued to improve and evolve through ongoing risk assessment, periodic testing and review. Internal audit should conduct periodic compliance audits based on identified risks, compliance controls should be tested, and gap assessments should be undertaken from time to time.
Finally, companies must undertake analysis and remediation of identified underlying misconduct. Root cause analyses are a key component of determining the appropriate scope and extent of remediation when compliance violations are identified.
Self-Disclosure Guidance
At the American Bar Association’s Annual National Institute on White Collar Crime on March 8, 2019, Assistant Attorney General Brian Benczkowski clarified the US Department of Justice (DOJ) self-disclosure program under the FCPA Corporate Enforcement Policy. The policy includes a presumption that the government will decline to prosecute business organizations that meet the DOJ’s standards of “voluntary self-disclosure,†“full cooperation,†and “timely and appropriate remediation.†However, the policy explains that this presumption can be negated if “aggravating circumstances†exist involving the nature of the offender or the seriousness of the offense.
In providing insight on how the DOJ is applying this policy, Benczkowski explained that prompt investigation and self-disclosure of FCPA issues may allow companies to overcome aggravating factors that otherwise could prevent the DOJ from declining prosecution. He highlighted that two recent DOJ declinations “make clear that aggravating factors like high-level executive involvement in the misconduct will not necessarily preclude a declination when the company’s actions are otherwise exemplary.â€
Companies have wrestled with whether to self-report potential violations of the FCPA when aggravating circumstances are present. The FCPA corporate enforcement policy states that aggravating factors include, but are not limited to, the following:
·        Involvement of company executive management in the misconduct
·        A significant profit to the company from the misconduct
·        Pervasiveness of the misconduct within the company
If the DOJ determines that aggravating circumstances do exist warranting criminal prosecution for a company that nevertheless has voluntarily disclosed the wrongdoing, fully cooperated, and timely and appropriately remediated, the policy (1) requires the government to recommend to the sentencing judge a 50 percent reduction off the low end of the US Sentencing Guidelines fine range (except in the case of a criminal recidivist), and (2) generally will not require the appointment of an independent monitor if the company has implemented an effective compliance program.
Benczkowski’s speech provides important clarity for management and boards. While misconduct in one recent DOJ investigation “reached the highest levels of the company,†the DOJ declined prosecution because that company had voluntarily self-disclosed conduct within two weeks of when the company’s board learned of it. The rationale for the declination, according to Benczkowski, was that the swift disclosure allowed the DOJ to bring charges against the company’s former president and former chief legal officer in connection to their alleged involvement in the conduct.
Benczkowski also clarified the DOJ’s approach to crediting self-disclosures in the M&A context. When companies uncover potential FCPA violations during a corporate merger or acquisition, the DOJ will provide credit in those circumstances. Applying the self-disclosure policy “to the M&A context avoids chilling acquisition activity by law-abiding companies, who might otherwise walk away from worthwhile investments due to the risk of FCPA enforcement,†Benczkowski said. According to Benczkowski, the DOJ does not want “the good corporate actors to cede the field to higher-risk entities that may only perpetuate illegal conduct.â€
Conclusion
While the DOJ continues to incentivize companies to identify culpable individuals while moving away from punishing corporate entities and shareholders for those individual actions, companies must affirmatively build effective compliance programs and report misconduct to accrue credit with the government. Time is of the essence in identifying who may be involved in potential FCPA violations. In instances where senior management is implicated, the board should be informed immediately to assess whether self-disclosure is appropriate. Management and boards should not be deterred by potential aggravating circumstances or factors when considering whether to self-report misconduct. The DOJ may still decline prosecution if the company’s actions in responding to the conduct are “exemplary.†When misconduct is identified post-acquisition, acquiring companies should promptly respond, remediate and consider whether to self-report. Self-disclosure credit still may apply in these circumstances.
Euro Fifty Million GDPR Fine on Google by French Data Protection Authority
Romain Perray
On 21 January 2019, the CNIL, the French data protection authority, fined Google LLC (“Googleâ€) € 50,000,000, for two types of infringements: (i) violations of the obligations of transparency and information as required by Articles 12 and 13 of the General Data Protection Regulation (“GDPRâ€) in relation to Google’ system of information provision to Android users; and (ii) a violation of the obligation to have a legal basis as required by Article 6 GDPR in relation to its advert personalisation services.
Although the significance of the fine imposed has received a great deal of attention, in our view, four other issues of this decision are likely to have more important implications for the Japanese companies operating in Europe. We will thus first address those four issues below before the issue of the fine.   Â
1. Procedure
There are four procedural particularities in this case.
First, the investigation was initiated following complaints lodged by two non-profit organizations, Max Schrems’ None of Your Business and the French advocacy group La Quadrature du Net, in accordance with Article 80 GDPR. This indicates that if a well-known not-for-profit organization lodges a basic but sufficiently argued claim, it might be sufficient for a data protection authority to launch an investigation. Also, the success of the collective complaint of this case may encourage data subjects to utilize a collective complaint and/or redress mechanism provided for under Article 80 GDPR.Â
Second, the investigation was only carried out online and no on-site inspection was conducted. A data protection authority may now easily investigate digital businesses even if their offices are located outside its geographical jurisdiction. There is therefore an elevated risk of investigations by data protection authorities for global digital businesses. Â
Third, the CNIL’s investigation focused on the privacy policy and the terms of service; however, it also extended to an assessment of the use of Android and Google Account, digital tools. Once an investigation starts, its scope can be expanded to areas indirectly related to the subject-matter of the investigation.
Lastly, the CNIL dismissed Google’s claim that its right to a fair trial guaranteed under Article 6 of the European Convention on Human Rights was infringed due to the lack of English translations of the fining decision and the opinion of the rapporteur and due to the insufficient time limits to provide observations. If the CNIL intends to address a non-French entity in its infringement decision, as it did in this case (the addressee of the decision was Google LLC), it should be more lenient with regard to the time limits to provide observations given that the CNIL provides all documents in French.
2. Main Establishment
Google claimed that its “main establishment†is Google Ireland Limited and the lead supervisory authority is thus the Irish data protection authority and that the CNIL lacked jurisdiction. Under the One-Stop Shop mechanism introduced by the GDPR, the supervisory authority of the main establishment is competent to act as lead supervisory authority for the cross-border data processing. This mechanism was created with a view to reducing administrative burden for entities carrying out cross-border data processing activities and to avoiding inconsistent decisions from multiple data protection authorities. Â
The CNIL rejected Google’s claim and concluded that it was competent to handle this matter in the absence of Google’s main establishment in the EU. Relying on the definition of “main establishment†under Article 4(16) GDPR, the CNIL found that Google Ireland Limited did not have any decision making power concerning the purposes and means of data processing carried out in the context of the creation of a Google Account during the configuration of a mobile phone using Android. Google Ireland Limited’s role was more or less limited to the conclusion of contracts with European clients.
This is the first time that an EU Member State data protection authority has ruled on the concept of “main establishmentâ€. Thus, some may try to argue that this is an isolated case and the other EU data protection authorities will not necessarily follow the CNIL approach. However, they most likely will do so in view of the fact that there seems to be consensus with regard to the CNIL’s conclusion. As a matter of fact, when the CNIL informed the other EU data protection authorities of its position concerning the issue of the main establishment to launch the cooperation mechanism under the GDPR, none of them opposed it.
According to the CNIL’s approach, for an EU entity to be qualified as the main establishment in a matter concerning a digital tool or IT system, it must have an active role in the choice and operation of that digital tool or IT system. However, Japanese companies often centralize IT systems at their headquarters in Japan. As a result, it will be difficult for them to claim that one of their EU subsidiaries is the EU main establishment when an IT system is under investigation.
Without the main establishment located in the EU, there is a risk that multinational companies may be subject to multiple fines by different data protection authorities in case the cooperation mechanism does not function properly. The Uber cases are a good illustration of this risk, although they pre-date the application of the GDPR. The American parent company (not its European subsidiaries) was fined € 435,000 by the British authority, € 600,000 by the Dutch authority and € 400,000 by the French authority respectively over the same data breach incident. The total fine amounted to € 1,435,000.
3. Transparency Principle
As shown by the fact that the majority of the sanctions issued in the last few months concerned security failures, the data security issue has gained attention as the primary risk associated with data processing. In such a context, the CNIL’s decision reminds us that the other data protection principles are as essential as the data security and their breaches can entail significant consequences.
In particular, the CNIL made it clear that transparency must not be neglected by any data controller even when complex multiple processing operations are involved. In the Google case, the CNIL found that Google failed to achieve a level of transparency required under Articles 12 and 13 GDPR. In accordance with Article 12 GDPR, when a data controller provides a privacy notice or communicates to data subjects, it must do so “in a concise, transparent, intelligible and easily accessible form, using clear and plain languageâ€.
However, for the CNIL, the privacy notice provided by Google to data subjects to fulfil its obligation under Article 13 GDPR was excessively scattered across several documents, each of which contained buttons and links for complementary information. The users were required to carefully go through a great deal of information to identify relevant information. Due to this complex structure, certain information was not easily accessible.
The CNIL also found that Google did not provide information in an intelligible and clear manner. Google can have an in-depth knowledge of users by combining different types of data from different sources, such as geolocalisation and viewed contents. Such combination represents a highly intrusive nature, which requires a higher level of the “intelligible†and “clear†nature of the information provided. However, the information provided by Google to the users did not allow them to sufficiently understand the consequences of the data processing concerning them. In particular, the description of the purposes did not enable the users to measure the extent of the processing and of the potential intrusion into their private life. Further, the description of the collected data was particularly imprecise and incomplete. Accordingly, the CNIL concluded that the information Google provided lacked intelligible and clear characteristics.
4. Consent
In line with Article 6 GDPR, Google relied on the users’ “consent†to process their personal data for the purposes of personalized advertising. In this regard, according to Article 4(11) GDPR, “consent†means “any freely given, specific, informed and unambiguous indication of the data subject’s wishes by which he or she, by a statement or by a clear affirmative action, signifies agreement to the processing of personal data relating to him or her.â€
However, for the same reasons as those for the lack of transparency (excessively scattered information), the CNIL found that the users were not sufficiently informed. Moreover, the CNIL found that consent was not unambiguous since the account preference settings were pre-ticked by default and there was basically no affirmative action by the users to consent to ad personalization. Further, the CNIL found that consent was not specific because users were obliged to accept all data processing operations for different purposes as a whole. Accordingly, the CNIL concluded that consent on the basis of which Google processed personal data was not valid.
5. Fine
By the Google decision, the CNIL has made the most known risk related to the GDPR, i.e. a heavy financial penalty, a reality. Until then, the risk had remained a theoretical one. The amount of the fines given after the GDPR became applicable on 25 May 2018 remained reasonable. For instance, the fines imposed by the Baden-Württemberg Land authority and the Portuguese authority for GDPR infringements in 2018 were € 20,000 and € 400,000.
The CNIL’s Google decision has crossed a threshold. The fine amount is substantial and it has significantly increased relative to previous fines. In July 2017, CNIL imposed a fine of € 100,000 on Darty, a major retailer of household electrical appliances. In June 2018, two weeks after the GDPR became applicable, the CNIL fined Optical Center € 250,000.
 In Google, in order to justify such an increase, the CNIL primarily based its argumentation on the extent of the infringements. It rejected Google’s argument that the violations only concerned 7% of the Android users, i.e. the users creating a new Google account while configuring a new device using the Android OS.The CNIL considered that the violations affected all the Android users on the French market as they were in a similar situation.
6. Comment
Companies in most industries gather data concerning their users (or customers) from multiple sources, such as contracts, user accounts, web browsing, and geolocalisation. The data thus accumulated allows those companies to have an in-depth knowledge of users’ behavior, including their habits, opinions, and social interactions. For the companies, such knowledge is valuable in offering more targeted advertisements or services. However, from the users’ point of view, the significant amount of data collected by the companies and the complexity of its processing represent a high risk of intrusion into their private life. As such, it is essential that the companies enable the users to understand their processing of their personal data in a transparent manner.
The question is how to achieve the requisite level of transparency when providing a privacy notice in relation to complex and often multiple data processing operations. As the CNIL acknowledges, presenting all information concerning complex data processing in one document may be counterproductive. In such a case, a layered approach is encouraged but the layers should not require five or six actions on the part of the user to have a comprehensive view of the information on the data processing. In particular, the preference setting of the user’s account should occur quickly and at the latest in the second document. As to the content, the information must enable the users to understand how their personal data is used and how they can control the scope and manner of such use in a simple manner.
Without a transparent privacy notice, consent also becomes invalid due to the lack of the “informed†nature. Similarly, consent should not be obtained collectively in one action for several processing purposes. For each purpose, there should be a blank (as opposed to pre-ticked) box so that the user can decide whether to accept or refuse processing with respect to each purpose and not with respect to all purposes or a combination of different purposes.
Bearing these points in mind, the companies will need to verify and if necessary, reconsider their ways of presenting privacy notices and of obtaining consent taking into account the users’ perspectives. Without it, and without the EU main establishment, they may face fines in several jurisdictions that they may have never regarded as important from a commercial point of view.
BEYOND CFIUS: FOREIGN INVESTMENT REVIEWS OUTSIDE THE UNITED STATES
David J. Levine | Raymond Paretzky
The United States is not the only country bolstering its protections against foreign investment that may compromise national security.
US legislation recently strengthened the law that authorises the President, through the Committee on Foreign Investment in the United States (CFIUS), to review and possibly block foreign investments if CFIUS finds they adversely affect US national security.
Other governments are following suit, adopting or enhancing CFIUS-like regimes to review foreign direct investment (FDI) in businesses deemed to involve sensitive or critical industries, technology, or infrastructure.
In the European Union, a regulation laying out an FDI framework for EU Member States was adopted on 5 March 2019. The regulation sets out basic procedural requirements that Member States with an FDI system will need to follow with respect to transparency, timeframes, protection of confidential information, and judicial redress.
The European Commission will also be able to issue an opinion to Member States on FDI likely to affect projects of EU interest. This new framework will coexist with the national regimes.
In December 2018, Germany revised its FDI regime to lower the thresholds applicable to certain industries.
It had already tightened its regime in 2017 by adding critical infrastructure, such as energy and telecommunications, to its scope of review.
At the end of 2018, France adopted a decree extending the breadth of its screening process to new sensitive areas, such as research and development in cybersecurity, artificial intelligence, and robotics.
Reacting to Chinese investment in the Hinkley Point nuclear project, in 2018 the UK Government published a white paper to review FDI in sectors that pose national security risks, such as advanced technologies, dual-use technologies, and national infrastructure.
FDI regulatory requirements vary widely in the Asia- Pacific region and in the Middle East.
Australia has a protectionist approach, and focuses its review on acquisitions of Australian real estate, agricultural land and agribusiness, and investments in sensitive industries, such as media, telecommunications, transport, and defence.
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In China, foreign investment laws designate industries as “encouraged,†“restricted,†or “prohibited.†FDI is prohibited, for example, in the media, natural resources, and military sectors.
In Japan, the government will review FDI in a variety of sensitive industries, including military, aerospace, and nuclear energy, as well as in critical infrastructure, such as electricity, gas, communications, and broadcasting.
Israel announced in early 2019 that it would adopt an FDI screening system, notably to counter Chinese investment in technology companies.
The global trend in many countries towards more restrictive control of FDI creates new regulatory obstacles for companies engaged in cross-border deals. Foreign investors should carefully consider reporting and review requirements and procedures in advance of any such transaction. If an FDI filing is required or advisable, foreign investors should engage authorities as early as possible, as FDI review procedures may impact timing and other strategic elements of cross- border transactions.
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Paul M. Thompson | Tony Maida | Michael W. Peregrine | Sarah E. Walters | Michael S. Stanek
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5. 制è£é‡‘
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6. コメント
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David J. Levine | Raymond Paretzky
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